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How to Navigate 19th Century Anti-Chinese Discrimination in America

The mid-19th century in the United States was filled with discrimination and even violence against Chinese laborers. Although you may find the States’ history of the USA with similar anti-Chinese sentiment, California was particularly notorious for its mistreatment and discrimination against Chinese laborers. This comprehensive blog guide lets you delve deeply into the complex landscape of anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States during the mid-19th century. Keep reading!

Roots of Resistance: Early Challenges to Chinese Exclusion (1850-1854)

Considerable hostility towards Chinese immigrants in the United States marked the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, ultimately resulting in the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) and subsequent legislation.

Nonetheless, from 1850 to 1943, opposition to Chinese exclusion and anti-Chinese discrimination arose from various individuals and groups. These efforts were driven by diverse motives such as commercial and religious interests, as well as an idealistic commitment to American republican values.

Arriving in California: Building Community Amid Hostility

Arriving in California in 1849, thousands of Chinese migrants sought opportunities in the Gold Rush. By December of the same year, a huiguan, known as a Chinese mutual-aid society, emerged in San Francisco, dedicated to assisting newly arrived immigrants in adapting to American life. Led and organized by the local Chinese merchant community, the huiguan facilitated job placement and housing for recent Chinese immigrants.

Moreover, they served as communication hubs, allowing immigrants to correspond and socialize. They also offered essential medical services for the sick and arrangements for transporting deceased immigrants back to their hometowns.

Encouraged by many employers in California seeking a stable and relatively inexpensive workforce, Chinese immigration flourished. American and British labor brokers predominantly recruited the majority of Chinese immigrants to fulfill this demand. Nevertheless, the early 1850s witnessed the emergence of a robust anti-Chinese movement among white American workers, viewing the Chinese as a direct threat to their livelihoods.

William Speer and Early Advocacy for Chinese Integration

In 1852, Governor John Bigler urged the California Assembly to enact laws halting Chinese immigration. Bigler’s argument centered on the notion that the Chinese, due to racial and cultural disparities, were unable to assimilate and thus incapable of citizenship.

Responding to this, Norman Asing and Tang Yazhi, senior leaders of the huiguan, countered with open letters published in local English-language newspapers. Both emphasized the significant economic contributions of Chinese merchants to California and underscored the importance of Sino-American trade. At the same time, Chinese history of education in the United States faced pervasive discrimination, hindering its recognition and scholarly exploration.

William Speer, a former Presbyterian missionary in China, emerged as one of the earliest white American supporters of the Chinese. Establishing a mission church, school, and medical clinic for the Chinese community in San Francisco in 1852, Speer sought to foster their integration. His widely distributed pamphlet, “China and California: Their Relations Past and Present,” highlighted the historical achievements of the Chinese and extolled the immense benefits of trade with China. Sharing the prevailing sentiment among American Protestants, Presbyterians believed in the special duty of the United States to convert Chinese immigrants, enabling them to serve as missionaries in their homeland. Protestant ministers and California businessmen thus became the primary public advocates for the Chinese in California.

Reforming Within: The Huiguan’s Response to Hostility

Responding to criticism from white Americans, the Chinese huiguan initiated reforms within their community. In 1853, during a public meeting attended by William Speer and Norman Asing, the huiguan committed to establishing a Chinese hospital. They also appointed an official to oversee hygiene in the Chinese districts and implemented measures to combat gambling and prostitution.

Additionally, they undertook efforts to dissuade Chinese immigration, aiming to mitigate anti-Chinese sentiments. Publishing letters in Hong Kong newspapers highlighting the escalating hostility towards the Chinese by Americans, the huiguan contributed to a potential decline in Chinese immigration during the 1850s.

Violence frequently ensued from the hostility towards the Chinese. The situation worsened due to the People v. Hall case (1854). In 1853, George Hall, a white miner, robbed and killed a Chinese miner. Despite the testimony of multiple Chinese witnesses leading to Hall’s arrest and death sentence, the California Supreme Court ruled that Chinese testimony couldn’t be used against white defendants. Consequently, Hall was released. This ruling essentially stripped the Chinese of legal protections, resulting in unchecked assaults on their community throughout the 1850s.

Six Companies and the Burlingame Treaty: Negotiating Rights and Representation (1867-1868)

With the decline of the gold fields, numerous Chinese transitioned to agricultural work. Consequently, the Chinese populace dispersed across California and adjacent states. Despite this, violence and harassment against the Chinese persisted. By 1860, the primary huiguan entities consolidated into a unified organization to collectively safeguard their interests. This organization was named Six Companies but is more commonly referred to as the Zhonghua Huiguan or Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association.

Six Companies was known as the foremost lobbyist that represented every Chinese interest in the US. After making strong connections with the Chinese administration, it was able to have Anson Burlingame appointed as a plenipotentiary in 1867, who was a former American minister to China. This role granted Burlingame the authority to negotiate and sign treaties.

According to the Treaty of Burlingame in 1868, the Chinese were assured the same rights as individuals from other nations regarding business, immigration, voyage, and stay if they did not want any such rights but only desired internal trading. The pact did not provide an opportunity for Chinese people to become citizens. Nevertheless, they were covered by that portion of the Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing all inhabitants equal protection under the law. These provisions, influenced by the Six Companies, were leveraged to challenge the constitutionality of anti-Chinese legislation.

Shifting Strategies: Anti-Chinese Movement and Changing Dynamics (1860s-1870s)

The expansion of the Chinese community in the United States was within reasonable limits the substance of the Burlingame Treaty. This community grew significantly in the mid-1860s because the Central Pacific Railroad had employed thousands of Chinese for building the transcontinental railroad. A fresh wave of anti-Chinese feelings accompanied this development and was aggravated by the depression of 1873-1877.

The Burlingame Treaty and preceding court rulings effectively rendered it nearly impossible for California to enact bans or interference against Chinese immigration. Consequently, the anti-Chinese movement shifted tactics, focusing more on perceived moral issues, notably prostitution, polygamy, and coolie labor, all viewed as forms of slavery.

Changes within the Chinese community in the United States might have contributed to this shift. Initially, like numerous other immigrant groups, the Chinese community predominantly comprised men.

However, by the 1860s, many of these men had settled in the United States and commenced the process of reuniting with their wives and children. Unmarried Chinese men would intermittently return to China to marry and bring their wives back to the United States. The presence of women and children signaled a permanent expansion of the Chinese community, a prospect deemed unacceptable by the anti-Chinese movement.

Highlighted earlier, one of the primary arguments against the Chinese population in the United States was the perceived threat of Chinese prostitution spreading disease among white Americans.

Additionally, widespread allegations claimed that these prostitutes were effectively enslaved, a contentious assertion during the Civil War era. This belief stemmed in part from a misunderstanding of the mui tsai system, a traditional practice in China. Under this system, impoverished families would sell their daughters for a fixed term of four to five years. These women would then serve as domestic workers, courtesans, or prostitutes, depending on the preferences of the contract holders. Upon completing their terms, the women regained autonomy, and many chose to either continue as servants or marry local Chinese men. While undoubtedly demeaning, this arrangement constituted indentured servitude rather than outright.

Concluding Remarks

Although this blog is informative, delving into “Secession – Dividing The States” written by Spencer M. Wertheimer can help you get a more comprehensive understanding of the topic, especially the Chinese Exclusion Act. This literary marvel is a wonderful resource for uncovering authentic insights and will further help you undertake a transformative exploration of America’s enduring dilemmas.

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